Introduction
The National Education Policy 2020 was introduced about six years ago, replacing the 1986 policy, and is now past the nascent stage of preparation. NEP 2020 emphasized a big shift in early childhood education, introduced a new school structure, and intended to make learning multidisciplinary and flexible.
As the policy moves out of its preparatory stages, the outcomes of its implementation become measurable, especially considering the goals clearly stated in the NEP 2020. The policy seeks better learning outcomes, higher Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER), improved skilling, and a dependable digital infrastructure, among other things. Education in India is legislated by both the central and state governments, and the implementation of the education policy as well as its goals have not been uniform across the states. In addition to the differing pace of implementation across states, the infrastructure gaps between and across rural and urban India, faculty vacancies and teacher training needs, and the ground realities of policy implementation makes this a mammoth exercise.
Budget and Implementation
In the Union Budget 2026-27, multiple steps were taken to align developmental goals with the NEP. Budget 2026 also has the highest allocation for school education to-date, keeping in line with the NEP’s stress on primary schooling. India’s education expenditure, overall, has seen an 8% increase since last year (from ₹1,28,650 crore to ₹1,39,286 crore). NEP 2020 aims for public investment in the education sector to be 6% of GDP. Between 2024-25 and 2026-27, the spending on education, as a proportion of the overall budget, ranges from approximately 2.4% to 2.6%.
On 23 March, a parliamentary panel highlighted the underutilisation of funds for school education schemes. The report states that for the combined amount of INR 62,660 cr allocated for five centrally sponsored schemes in BE 2025-26, Actual Expenditure (AE) stands at INR 32,296.54 cr, or 51.5% of the BE.
Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan
Launched in 2018, the scheme is meant to support states to implement the National Education Policy, 2020 and RTE Act, 2009, ensure equity and inclusion in school education, strengthen teacher training, ensure minimum standards in schooling, and promote vocational education. Both the centre and the state are responsible for funding the scheme. In 2026-27, the allocation to the scheme is 11% higher than the RE of 2025-26. While 86% of the funds are utilised on average, this decreased marginally in 2025-26. Additionally, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and West Bengal were denied funds over NEP resistance, despite having received these funds in 2023-24. This is due to the states’ refusal to sign a MoU regarding the implementation of the NEP. The matter was taken to the Supreme Court after Tamil Nadu stated concurrent responsibility to provide funding under Section 7 of the RTE Act, 2009.
PM-Poshan Scheme
This scheme, providing a meal a day to children through pre-primary till grade 8, and a major motivator behind student enrolment and retention, has faced funding as well as monitoring issues. PM Poshan offers guidelines on food safety and nutrition, yet reports of food contamination resulting in health issues have surfaced across the country. The PM Poshan scheme aligns with the NEP’s goals to boost nutrition, enrollment, and attendance, yet there have been funding inconsistencies. The funds have been underutilised since 2024-24, although the trend shows improvement. Additionally, in 2026-27, although the allocation for this scheme is 20% higher than previous year’s RE (Revised Estimates), this year’s RE cut the funding from INR 12,500 cr to INR 10,600 cr.
Teacher Vacancies, PTR, and Teacher Training
Teacher training has seen a steep decline since 2019-20, and as of 2024-25, more than 50% of teachers at pre-primary levels are not qualified to teach. A parliament panel has flagged around 10 lakh teaching vacancies in India, including central institutions like Navodaya Vidyalayas and Kendriya Vidyalas. Shortage of teachers can also lead to skewed PTR ratios. Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR) is the average number of students per teacher at any level of education. The NEP recommends PTR to be 30:1. Although the PTR according to 2014-15 reports is 24:1, NITI Aayog noted in 2021 that 36% of government schools in India had less than 50 students and one or two teachers, leading to lowered PTR.
Low Enrolment
The NEP aims to achieve 100% GER. The Economic Survey 2024-25 shows that the Gross Enrolment Ratio increased from 23.7% to 28.4%. However, the circumstances are far from ideal. For instance, student enrolments in Kendriya Vidyalayas have dropped from 1.95 lakh in 2020–21 to 1.39 lakh in 2024–25, a 28% decrease. This is despite 85 new KV’s being sanctioned.
Federal Dilemma
The implementation of the NEP has been varied and fragmented across the states. The reasons can broadly be categorised into a combination of political resistance, funding and implementation gaps, lack of teacher training, access to digital infrastructure, and regional diversity. Each state has its own approach towards the NEP rollout, and all of them have met with varying levels of successes and roadblocks.
The following sections elaborate on the key issues regarding NEP implementation in a few states.
Maharashtra
The Maharashtra State Academic and Research Council (MahaSARC) was established to aid the implementation of NEP 2020. The MahaSARC will function as apex authority in academic matters related to higher education.
Prior to the implementation of the NEP 2020, Marathi and English were being taught mandatorily from grade 1-4. The new curriculum for school education, as per the NEP 2020, had previously made Hindi a mandatory subject. However, the state government eventually withdrew Hindi as a compulsory subject, facing backlash, and students will be allowed to pursue any Indian language as part of the three-language policy. –
A study conducted in Osmanabad on the implementation of the NEP indicated a rural-urban divide in its adoption. Urban schools reportedly tended to be more digital, experiential, and stakeholder-oriented, whereas rural schools faced infrastructural issues, unqualified teachers, and parental disengagement. While the NEP aims to digitalise education, 36% of schools in India still do not have internet access. Digital infrastructure, training, and accessibility across gender and caste lines are also essential, especially in rural areas.
For third-year bachelor degree students, the NEP also has a provision for a fourth year dedicated to research. The first batch of students to benefit from this policy will soon be moving onto the fourth year, and the Maharashtra state board is set to introduce new NCERT textbooks for the curriculum. Additionally, in order to ease the faculty shortages across HEIs, 5,500 assistant professors are to be recruited in the state by March 2026.
Tamil Nadu
The DMK-led government has strictly opposed the push for NEP implementation, choosing to highlight the linguistic autonomy of states and question the centralisation of education. Tamil Nadu has proposed its own State Education Policy with some key changes, becoming the first state to do so.
The alternate education policy does not adopt a three-language approach, instead sticking to English and Tamil. While the NEP has suggested board exams for classes 3, 5 and 8, the SEP does not plan on implementing these public exams. The introduction of common entrance tests for undergraduate students was also not proposed in the SEP. The approach towards standardised national exams also varies, with the TN government being critical of them. The SEP recommends moving Education to the State List from the Concurrent List. While the NEP proposes public-private partnerships, the SEP argues for greater public funding, control, and accountability. The state claims that this disagreement has led to the central government withholding INR 2,400 crore under the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), especially after Tamil Nadu refused to join PM-SHRI school scheme.
Tamil Nadu’s Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) is above 95 per cent, with a 102.6 per cent GER at the upper primary level, and retention rates above 97 per cent. While the SEP does propose the inclusion of materials that address caste-based discrimination in the school curriculum, a point of criticism aimed at the policy is that it falls short on sufficiently addressing existing disparities along gender and caste lines.
Lakshwadeep
In the Union Territory of Lakshwadeep, most students depend on Kerala for higher education. In the last few years, the administration has implemented many changes, starting with the closing of the Calicut University in Androth and Kadamath to establish institutions under Pondicherry University. Island authorities discontinued the following courses: M.A. in Arabic, English, and Politics and M.Sc. in Aquaculture and Maths. Students and academics protested the migration to Pondicherry University. The island administration has also shut down or merged schools, leading to public dissatisfaction. Protests also erupted after Hindi replaced Mahal and Arabic in schools. These changes were made to implement NEP’s three language formula. Due to cultural concerns, the Kerala High Court stayed the ban.
Karnataka
In Karnataka, the Congress-led state government will be shifting the education model to a policy constituted by the SEP Commission, which was set up in 2023. The SEP commission is headed by former UGC Chairperson Sukhadeo Thorat, along with 15 more members. The SEP proposes Kannada or the student’s mother tongue as the medium of instruction till 5th grade, and has suggested a two-language policy.
The Karnataka SEP also proposes an education model consisting of 2 years of pre-primary, 8 years of elementary schooling and 4 years of secondary education, while the NEP proposes an educational model of 5+3+3+4. The Karnataka SEP recommends the inclusion of comprehensive sex education for pre-university students (class 11 and 12). The curriculum is supposed to include topics such as emotional well-being, consent, abuse and its prevention, gender sensitivity, and educational content on hormonal changes. The state government had already suggested making sex education mandatory for grades 8 to 12, referring to it as ‘adolescent education’. The need to highlight sex education also arises due to the rising number of cases under the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act in Karnataka; the number of cases registered rose by 26% in the last two years.
Goa
Goa has been implementing measures to align the state’s education model with NEP 2020. Educators and parents have stated concerns about the implementation of the policies, including privatisation at the cost of public schooling, confusion regarding the new academic calendar, and faculty availability. Questions were also raised regarding the opening of new private universities while disregarding the enrolment issues already faced by public universities. Further questions over the implementation of the NEP were brought up in the Goa Assembly, highlighting the need for transparency on instructional hours, workload, and educational infrastructure across the state. The “Mukhyamantri Dnyanparva Yojana” approved the creation of 1,385 posts to facilitate NEP implementation and provide educators for the foundational, preparatory, middle and secondary stages, and 377 instructors for art education and NSQF-related subjects.
Additional fears arose over the discontinuation of Portuguese and French learning in schools. According to a circular issued by the SCERT, the languages taught in the new curriculum would be Konkani/Marathi, English, and Hindi or any other language native to India (English is considered a foreign language under NEP 2020). However, an official from the state education department stated that schools offering Portuguese and French as options can continue to do so.
West Bengal
West Bengal’s education minister had, back in 2020, stated that NEP 2020 would not be implemented in the state. Multiple developments have occurred in the state since then, both aligning with and contradicting the statement.
Like Karnataka, WB also introduced its own state education policy, the West Bengal State Education Policy 2023. The West Bengal government also formed a ten member committee to examine the NEP. Key reforms included the adoption of a compulsory three-language formula with emphasis on Bengali, internship opportunities for school students, and means to empower marginalized groups. While the policy has been crafted by the state, it contains aspects that align with the NEP. Other goals of the WBSEP 2023 that align with the NEP 2020 are the merger of schools, four-year undergraduate programmes, and greater focus on vocational training and enrolment.The state implemented the 4-year UG programme, to ensure that students from WB do not fall behind other states that will be implementing the same programme.
The Supreme Court also rejected a plea seeking implementation of the NEP’s three-language policy in WB, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala, citing Article 32. Recently, Union Education Minister Dharmendra Pradhan stated that Bengal has lost 10,000 cr INR in central funding due to its refusal to adopt the NEP. Colleges are also struggling to meet the requirement of providing mandatory internship to be undertaken by all students in order to get a degree, as per the NEP recommendations.
Kerala
Kerala has consistently been recognised as a state with high literacy rates, GER, and a successful education model, specifically for primary schooling. Many of the goals listed in the NEP would seem redundant in the state, as it has already achieved what the NEP aims for in the rest of the country. Although the Kerala government has been against statewide implementation of the NEP, recent developments, in light of funding issues, have led to an agreement.
The PM SHRI scheme intends to establish 14,500 model schools nationwide, based on the principles of NEP 2020, and has a budget of INR 27,360 crore (INR 18,128 crore from the Centre) over the course of five years. For Kerala, the funds withheld, including dues from previous years, amounted to INR 1,158.13 cr. The shortage of funds stood to affect 4 million students, including the provisions of uniforms and textbooks, scholarships, support for marginalised groups and disabled children, and teacher training. In light of this, Kerala signed up for the PM SHRI scheme.
Limitations to Existing Approach
Education is a fundamental right, and the primary policy that shapes education in India should be implemented through an evidence-based and democratic approach. Within India’s federal framework, the states and the centre must ensure that education in India is not reduced to a political or ideological battleground, thus undermining the foundation of equitable and quality education.
1. Funding and Transparency: Only 51.5% of the funds from the BE of 2025-26 for centrally funded schemes have been utilised. For PM Poshan, RE led to a reduction in the amount. For PM-SHRI Schools, allocation was reduced from INR 7,500 crore to INR 4,500 crore. Funds for strengthening teaching-learning and results for states (STARS) were reduced from INR 1,250 crore to INR 500 crore. The NEP sets a vision for education that must be met with substantial funding, utilisation of funds, and tangible outcomes.
2. Faculty Building and Vacancies: There are 1 million vacant posts for school teachers in the country—a significant deterrent to the quality of education provided. The committee report also stated that teachers must not be engaged in ‘non-academic’ duties, as it adds to the stress and further deteriorates the quality of academic services. The panel noted that the National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) has not recruited permanent teaching, non-teaching, and administrative staff since 2019 (till June 15). The Integrated Teacher Education Programme (ITEP), a four-year integrated bachelor degree program in education, has fragmented exit options under the program that can increase the risk of underqualified teacher candidates and lead to resource wastage.
3. Neglect of Public Institutions: Encouraging and investing in private institutions can bring forth innovation and growth in education. However, a healthy education model cannot be neglectful of its public institutions. As noted above, teacher vacancies and non-academic burdens contribute to a poor quality of education. Disadvantaged communities in India depend on public institutions to ensure that their constitutional rights are met, and access to education is facilitated through a dependable public education system. A parliamentary report on the NCTE stated that, “Many public as well as private institutions offering teacher education programs lack the infrastructure, faculty expertise, or academic rigour to deliver a truly multidisciplinary curriculum, which compromises the quality of education and the integration of liberal arts, sciences, and pedagogical training.”
4. Enrolment and Marginalisation: Over 1.17 million children are estimated to be out of school in India in 2024-25, with Uttar Pradesh having the highest number. Schools are being merged to deal with low enrolment rates; however, this puts many children in difficult situations, reducing their accessibility to schools due to increased travel time. This has been noted in Goa, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, and more. Merging schools, however, will not necessarily solve the problem. As already noted, it may also disproportionately affect the poor. Easier access to schools, mid-day meals, better infrastructure and community engagement will encourage children to go to school.
5. Regional Variances: With education being in the concurrent list, and keeping in mind the diversity of Indian states, the National Education Policy must account for substantial regional variations in its implementation. There exist disparities in the educational goals and outcomes desired, and required, in each state. Coordinating with the state’s administration, without compromising on the quality and accessibility of education, is needed to ensure better learning outcomes.
